The Seljuk Turks and the Byzantine Empire: A History of Conflict and Cooperation

Seljuk: The Rise and Fall of a Turco-Persian Empire

The Seljuk Empire was one of the most powerful and influential states in the medieval Islamic world. It spanned from Anatolia to Central Asia, from the Levant to the Persian Gulf, and from the 11th to the 13th century. It was founded by a branch of Oghuz Turks who converted to Islam and allied with the Abbasid Caliphate. It challenged the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia, defended Islam against the Crusaders in Syria, supported Sunni orthodoxy against Shiism, patronized Persian culture and literature, and fostered a remarkable civilization that left a lasting legacy in art, architecture, education, and law. However, it also faced internal divisions, external invasions, and political fragmentation that led to its eventual demise. In this article, we will explore the history, culture, society, achievements, decline, and legacy of the Seljuk Empire.

Introduction

Who were the Seljuks and where did they come from? What were their main achievements and contributions to Islamic civilization? What were the causes and consequences of their decline and collapse? These are some of the questions that we will try to answer in this article. But first, let us define what we mean by the Seljuk Empire.

seljuk

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The term Seljuk refers to a dynasty of rulers who belonged to a branch of Oghuz Turks called Qïnïq. They traced their ancestry to a chief named Seljuk, who lived in the 10th century near the Aral Sea. The name Seljuk also applies to their followers, who were mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic tribesmen who spoke Oghuz Turkic languages. The term Seljuk Empire, however, is a modern convention that encompasses several political entities that were ruled by different members of the Seljuk family or their descendants. These entities include:

• The Great Seljuk Empire (10371194), which covered most of Iran, Iraq, Syria, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, parts of Pakistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Anatolia, and Palestine.

• The Sultanate of Rum (10771308), which was an independent state in Anatolia that emerged after the Battle of Manzikert (1071) and contested with the Byzantine Empire.

• The Sultanate of Kerman (10411186), which was a semi-autonomous state in southeastern Iran that was ruled by a cadet branch of the Seljuk dynasty.

• Other smaller states or principalities that were founded by Seljuk governors or generals in various regions such as Syria, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Anatolia, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, etc.

In this article, we will focus mainly on the Great Seljuk Empire as it was the most prominent and influential among these states. We will also briefly mention some aspects of the other Seljuk states when relevant.

The Origins and Expansion of the Seljuk EmpireThe Origins and Expansion of the Seljuk Empire

The Seljuk Empire was founded by Tughril Beg, a grandson of Seljuk, who united the various Oghuz tribes under his leadership and established his capital at Nishapur in northeastern Iran in 1037. He was recognized as the sultan (ruler) by the Abbasid caliph al-Qa'im in 1055, after he entered Baghdad and expelled the Shi'ite Buyid dynasty that had dominated the caliphate for over a century. Tughril Beg thus became the protector and ally of the Sunni Abbasid caliphate, which granted him legitimacy and prestige among the Muslim world.

Tughril Beg's successor, Alp Arslan (10631072), expanded the Seljuk Empire to its greatest extent. He conquered Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and parts of Anatolia from the Byzantine Empire, which he defeated decisively at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. He also annexed Khwarezm (modern-day Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan) and Khorasan (northeastern Iran and northern Afghanistan) from the Ghaznavid Empire, which he defeated at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. He also faced the Fatimid Caliphate, a rival Shi'ite state that controlled Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, and fought against them in several battles. Alp Arslan was known for his courage, generosity, justice, and tolerance. He was also a patron of culture and learning, and supported many scholars and poets at his court.

Seljuk Empire history and culture

Seljuk dynasty and Persian influence

Seljuk Turks and the Crusades

Seljuk art and architecture

Seljuk sultans and their achievements

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Seljuk military and administration

Seljuk religion and law

Seljuk literature and science

Seljuk ceramics and metalwork

Seljuk monuments and sites

Seljuk relations with the Abbasids

Seljuk battles and campaigns

Seljuk migrations and settlements

Seljuk legacy and impact

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Seljuk astronomy and mathematics

Seljuk poetry and music

Seljuk women and society

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Seljuk languages and scripts

Seljuk genealogy and clans

Seljuk jewelry and costumes

Seljuk medicine and pharmacy

Seljuk philosophy and theology

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Seljuk geography and climate

Seljuk weapons and armor

Seljuk ethics and morals

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Seljuk pottery and glassware

Seljuk festivals and celebrations

Seljuk calligraphy and painting

Seljuk zoology and botany

Seljuk politics and governance

Seljuk tombs and shrines

Seljuk sports and games

Seljuk astronomy instruments

Seljuk madrasas and mosques

Seljuk caravanserais and bridges

Seljuk irrigation systems

Seljuk gardens and fountains

Seljuk minarets and domes

Seljuk tiles and mosaics

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Seljuk chronicles and biographies

Alp Arslan's son, Malik Shah (10721092), continued his father's policies and achievements. He consolidated the Seljuk Empire and maintained peace and stability within its borders. He reformed the administration, taxation, coinage, and law of the empire, and appointed a famous Persian vizier (prime minister), Nizam al-Mulk, who was also a renowned scholar and statesman. He also promoted the development of science, philosophy, theology, literature, and art in his realm, and founded many madrasahs (Islamic colleges) that attracted students from all over the Muslim world. He also supported the astronomical observatory in Isfahan, where Omar Khayyam, a famous Persian poet and mathematician, worked on the reform of the calendar. Malik Shah also sponsored the construction of many mosques, caravanserais (roadside inns), bridges, canals, and hospitals throughout his empire.

The Culture and Society of the Seljuk Empire

The Seljuk Empire was a remarkable example of a Turco-Persian synthesis, where Turkish and Persian elements blended harmoniously in various aspects of culture and society. The Seljuks were originally nomadic Turks who adopted Islam and Persian culture as they settled in Iran and Iraq. They spoke Oghuz Turkic languages as their mother tongue, but they also learned Persian as the language of administration, literature, and diplomacy. They respected the Persian heritage and traditions, and employed many Persian officials, scholars, poets, artists, and craftsmen at their courts. They also patronized Persian schools of thought such as Ash'arism (a Sunni theological school) and Sufism (a mystical branch of Islam).

The Seljuks were also instrumental in reviving Sunni Islam in the regions that had been dominated by Shi'ism or heterodoxy for a long time. They supported the Abbasid caliphate as the symbol of Sunni authority and unity, and defended it against its enemies such as the Fatimids, the Buyids, the Qarmatians, and the Ismailis. They also established madrasahs (Islamic colleges) that taught Sunni jurisprudence (fiqh), theology (kalam), hadith (traditions of Muhammad), Quranic exegesis (tafsir), logic (mantiq), philosophy (falsafa), and other sciences. The most famous madrasah was the Nizamiyya in Baghdad, which was founded by Nizam al-Mulk in 1065. It was attended by many eminent scholars such as al-Ghazali (a renowned theologian and philosopher), al-Juwayni (a leading jurist), al-Bayhaqi (a prominent historian), and al-Mawardi (a distinguished political scientist).

The Seljuks were also known for their architectural and artistic achievements that reflected their cultural diversity and creativity. They built many mosques that combined Turkish and Persian styles such as the Masjid-i Jami' (Friday Mosque) in Isfahan and the Masjid-i Jami' (Friday Mosque) in Nain. They also built many caravanserais (roadside inns) that facilitated trade and travel along the Silk Road, such as the Ribat-i Sharaf in Khorasan. They also developed a distinctive style of pottery that featured geometric and floral motifs, calligraphy, and luster glaze, such as the Kashan ware. They also excelled in metalwork, woodwork, leatherwork, and textile production, and created many beautiful objects such as candlesticks, bowls, chests, belts, and carpets.

The Decline and Disintegration of the Seljuk Empire

The Seljuk Empire reached its peak under Malik Shah, but after his death in 1092, it began to decline and disintegrate. The main reasons for this were:

• The succession disputes and civil wars among the Seljuk princes, who fought for power and territory. The empire was divided into several rival states that competed with each other and weakened the central authority.

• The external threats from the Crusaders, Mongols, and Khwarazmians, who invaded and conquered parts of the Seljuk lands. The Crusaders launched the First Crusade in 1096 and captured Jerusalem in 1099, establishing several Crusader states in Syria and Palestine. The Mongols invaded Iran and Iraq in the 13th century and destroyed the Abbasid caliphate in 1258, ending the Seljuk protectorate. The Khwarazmians were a Turkic dynasty that rose to power in Central Asia and challenged the Seljuks for supremacy. They defeated the Seljuks at the Battle of Parwan in 1192 and captured their capital of Isfahan.

• The emergence of successor states and the legacy of the Seljuks. Despite their decline and collapse, the Seljuks left behind a lasting legacy in the regions they ruled. Many of their governors or generals established their own independent states or principalities that continued the Seljuk traditions and culture. Some of these states were:

StateFounderCapitalRegion

Sultanate of RumSuleyman ibn QutulmishKonyaAnatolia

Zengid dynastyImad ad-Din ZengiMosulNorthern Iraq and Syria

Ayyubid dynastySaladinCairoEgypt, Syria, Palestine

Artuqid dynastyArtuq ibn EksebMardinSoutheastern Anatolia

Burid dynastyToghtekinDamascusSouthern Syria

Khwarezmian dynastyAnushtegin GharchaiGurganj (Urgench)Central Asia and Iran

Ottoman EmpireErtugrul GhaziSogutNorthwestern Anatolia

Safavid EmpireSheikh Safi al-Din ArdabiliTabrizIran and Azerbaijan

Mamluk SultanateAybakCairoEgypt and Syria

These states carried on the Seljuk legacy in different ways, and some of them became powerful and influential empires in their own right, such as the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire, which shaped the history of the Middle East and beyond for centuries to come.

Conclusion

The Seljuk Empire was a remarkable phenomenon in the history of the Islamic world. It was founded by a nomadic Turkic tribe that converted to Islam and adopted Persian culture. It rose to become one of the most powerful and influential states in the medieval era, and contributed to the revival of Sunni Islam, the patronage of Persian culture, and the development of a rich civilization. It also faced many challenges and difficulties, such as internal strife, external invasions, and political fragmentation, that led to its decline and collapse. However, it left behind a lasting legacy that influenced many successor states and regions. The Seljuk Empire was a Turco-Persian synthesis that enriched the Islamic world and the world at large.

FAQs

Here are some frequently asked questions about the Seljuk Empire:

• When and where was the Seljuk Empire founded?

The Seljuk Empire was founded in 1037 by Tughril Beg, a grandson of Seljuk, who united the Oghuz Turks under his leadership and established his capital at Nishapur in northeastern Iran.

• What was the relationship between the Seljuks and the Abbasids?

The Seljuks were allies and protectors of the Abbasid caliphate, which granted them legitimacy and prestige as sultans (rulers) of the Muslim world. The Seljuks also supported the Abbasid caliphate against its enemies such as the Shi'ite Buyids, Fatimids, Qarmatians, and Ismailis.

• What was the significance of the Battle of Manzikert?

The Battle of Manzikert was fought in 1071 between the Seljuks and the Byzantines in eastern Anatolia. The Seljuks won a decisive victory that opened up Anatolia for Turkish settlement and colonization. It also marked the beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia.

• Who were some of the famous figures of the Seljuk Empire?

Some of the famous figures of the Seljuk Empire were:

• Tughril Beg, Alp Arslan, and Malik Shah, who were the most prominent sultans of the empire.

• Nizam al-Mulk, who was a Persian vizier (prime minister) who reformed the administration, law, and education of the empire.

• Al-Ghazali, who was a renowned theologian and philosopher who reconciled Sufism with Sunni orthodoxy.

• Omar Khayyam, who was a famous poet and mathematician who worked on the reform of the calendar.

• Rumi, who was a celebrated poet and mystic who founded the Mevlevi order of whirling dervishes.

• What was the impact of the Seljuk Empire on the Islamic world and beyond?

The Seljuk Empire had a profound impact on the Islamic world and beyond in various ways, such as:

• It revived Sunni Islam and supported the Abbasid caliphate as the symbol of Muslim unity and authority.

• It patronized Persian culture and literature and fostered a Turco-Persian synthesis that enriched the Islamic civilization.

• It developed a remarkable civilization that excelled in science, philosophy, theology, art, architecture, education, and law.

• It opened up Anatolia for Turkish settlement and colonization and paved the way for the emergence of the Ottoman Empire.

• It challenged the Byzantine Empire and defended Islam against the Crusaders in Syria and Palestine.

• It influenced many successor states and regions that carried on its legacy and traditions.

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